which three african countries gained independence after 1945?

The three liberation movements proved unable to constitute a united front after the Portuguese coup. We have given birth to all these men. Josina Machel was a prominent leader in FRELIMO and a freedom fighter for Mozambique. 1851-1871, Vincent Ferraro, "Dependency Theory: An Introduction," in The Development Economics Reader, ed. WebBritain left India in 1947, Palestine in 1948, and Egypt in 1956; it withdrew from Africa in the 1950s and 60s, from various island protectorates in the 1970s and 80s, and from Hong Kong in 1997. Article Iv Consultation - Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement By The Executive Director For Nigeria. Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on the Gold Coast (present Ghana) since 22 April 1650, but lost the last when on 20 April 1663 Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg were seized by Denmark. Amaka-zine. The Central African Federation was dissolved in 1963. In 1952 Ntsu Mokhehle formed the Basutoland Congress Party (BCP), modeled on the ANC. Khedivate of Egypt, a de jure Ottoman autonomous viceroyalty (the viceroys [khedives] was from the Muhammad Ali dynasty)(Occupied by the British Empire from 1882 to 1922)(18671914) [67], Popularly known as Bibi Titi, Bibi Titi Mohamed was a prominent figure in African women's politics and the independence movement in Tanganyika, mobilizing women to join the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) political party.[66]. The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. [25] For early African nationalists, decolonisation was a moral imperative around which a political movement could be assembled.[26][27]. But in the decades following WWII, dozens of countries claimed their independence. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides Vanuatu, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. WebDecolonization. The region of Africa is generally defined geographically to include the subregions of African continent, Madagascar island, Mauritius Island and several minor islands, and their respective sovereign states. [24], Colonial economic exploitation involved the siphoning off of resource extraction (such as mining) profits to European shareholders at the expense of internal development, causing major local socioeconomic grievances. Part of the Zirid Emirate (10141148) WebWhich three African countries gained independence after 1945? Cape Coast was centered on the Carolusburg Castle which was built in 1653 and named after King Charles X Gustav of Sweden but is now known as the Cape Coast Castle. [53][54] Lasting more than eight years, the estimated death toll typically falls between 300,000 and 400,000 people. IMF Country Report No. Ghana (Gold Coast) in 1957 was the first country south of the Sahara to become independence. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. In some sectors the labour activism caused African wages to rise more quickly than white wages. [66] A new republican constitution was adopted one year later, in December of 1962. The, Not celebrated as a holiday. Brown, Judith M. and Wm. By the 1940s there was enough education to make European-style political activity possible in all the coastal colonies. de Klerk ascended to the presidency in 1989, he faced continuing African militancy, international economic and cultural sanctions, renewed economic recession, and intensifying war in Angola and Namibia. Emperor of Ethiopia on the date of the transfer. WebThe "year of Africa"1960saw seventeen colonies gain independence from the British, French, and Belgian imperial powers. [11] Some African soldiers also volunteered. Center of the Fatimid Caliphate (909-973) (the capital cities was located in modern Tunisia) The constitutional proposals were rejected by the international community, however, and in 1978 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 435, which set out proposals for a cease-fire and UN-supervised elections. [68] She advocated for political freedom as well as the autonomy of women. In 1652, the Swedes took Cape Coast (in modern Ghana) which had previously been under the control of the Dutch and before that the Portuguese. She never got to see Mozambique as an independent state. As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-Lopoldville in 1960. Before this, various forms and demonstrations against colonial rule took place. ), European and African interaction from the 15th through the 18th century, European and African interaction in the 19th century, Legitimate trade and the persistence of slavery, Increasing violence in other parts of Southern Africa, The Republic of Natalia and the British colony of Natal, Minerals and the scramble for Southern Africa, Angola and Mozambique in the late 19th century, Class and ethnic tensions among white settlers, Christianity and African popular religion, Independence and decolonization in Southern Africa, The consolidation of white rule in Southern Africa, National Front for the Liberation of Angola, National Union for the Total Independence of Angola. The economy also began to show signs of weakness by the mid 1970s. Many of these African members, however, were still government nominees, and, because of the British attachment to indirect rule, those who were elected were mainly representative of the traditional chiefs. By the later 1940s, however, there were appreciable numbers of Africans in both the French and the British colonies who had emerged from traditional society through the new opportunities for economic advancement and education. Image credit: Zvonimir Atletic/Shutterstock [59] The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo independence. The movement sought to raise Black self-awareness and to unite Black students, professionals, and intellectuals. The British educational system therefore developed into a pyramid with a much broader base than the French one. Part of the Exarchate of Africa (590698) (a division of the Eastern Roman Empire) Africans in the north, however, feared that federation would prevent political advance and extend Southern Rhodesias racist laws. 2022, from https://amaka.studio/explore/articles/remembering-josina-machel-and-the-fight-for-independence-in-mozambique, Biney, A. Uncovering Josina Machel from Obscurity: African Women Hidden in History. In contrast, one of the last British colonies in Africa to gain its independence was Zimbabwe in 1980. Large numbers of Black troops were recruited, and villagers supporting the guerrillas were subjected to savage reprisals. At the same time, the growing importance of the copper industry in Northern Rhodesia attracted Southern Rhodesian whites to the idea of federation. Control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle, who used the colonial bases as a launching point to help expel the Vichy government from Metropolitan France. There followed a military dictatorship headed first by Seyni Kountch (until his death in 1987) and then by Ali Seibou. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence, on one hand, he was creating new ties with the help of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. Thus, in all three territories conservative governments anxious to avoid provoking South Africa emerged in the first elections after independence. During the late 1970s Malawi, long believed to have successful rural development policies, also faced economic crisis. Center of the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria (Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt, after the death of Saladin), third independent dynasty of Egypt in the Middle Ages (11711174) Part of the Rashidun Caliphate (641661) The accompanying political changes were more cautious and turned out to be inadequate to accommodate African aspirationswhich had been derived from social changes occasioned during the classical period of colonial rule and further whetted by the policies of active economic development. As a warrant chief, Ekpo passed a law that required police to employ more women in Enugu and Lagos. Which countries were independent before 1945? [58], Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. Part of the Abbasid Caliphate (868935) [71] Machel fled successfully after a second attempt. Under joint pressure from the Soviet Union and the United States, South Africa finally agreed to implement Resolution 435, and democratic elections in 1989 were won by SWAPO, led by Sam Nujoma. The MPLA was supported by communists in Portugal, the Soviet Union, and Cuba, but its hegemony was contested from the start by Holden Robertos National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertao de Angola; FNLA), based in Congo (Kinshasa), and by Jonas Savimbis National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (Unio Nacional para a Independncia Total de Angola; UNITA), supported primarily by Ovimbundu in the south. [71] Due to her status, Machel was allowed to receive an education until secondary school. The emergence of these nationalist movements profoundly disturbed the federal authorities. This event transformed political consciousness beyond the youthalthough they remained in the forefront of protest thereafterwith far-reaching consequences. Furthermore, the postwar economic situation was one in which African farmers were receiving high prices for their produce but could find little to spend their money on, and in which the eagerly awaited development plans were slow to mature because European capital goods were in short supply. Foccart supported in particular the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s. ", Seidler, Valentin. [40] Macmillan urgently wanted to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria. Source for information on Independence and Decolonization, Middle Guinea-Bissau (former Portuguese Guinea), see Portuguese Colonial War. Botha, who became prime minister of South Africa in 1978 and led South Africa until 1989, massively increased defense expenditures and began a low-grade war on the neighbouring states, determined to destroy all ANC bases. 1960 was the big year for African independence. Bibi Titi left a legacy that calls on women to have greater self-respect and encourages women to strive for more education and equal treatment. The FNLAs internal support had dwindled to a few Kongo groups, but it had strong links with the regime in Zaire and was well armed; it thus made a bid to seize Luanda by force. A History of Africa. Observe the dates of independence. In 1945, Ekpo became involved in politics after her husband, Dr. John Udo Ekpo, became dissatisfied with the colonial administration's treatment of indigenous Nigerian doctors. By 196162 the nationalists had been released and new constitutions drawn up, and in 1963 the federation was dissolved. Until the death of Sobhuza II in 1982, all opposition to the government and to its close links with South Africa was suppressed. Having only four years of primary school education before her political career, she was a housewife and lead singer in a Bamba'' group. Part of the Aghlabid Emirate (800909) This tended to accentuate already existing disparities. The sanctions closed Zambias major trade and transportation routes through Rhodesia, and, although alternate routes were established through Angola and new east-west lines through Tanzania were constructed by the mid 1970s, subsequent armed incursions from Rhodesia and South Africa and continued warfare in Angola and Mozambique disrupted the costly new trade and transportation lines. South Africa destabilized the region by arming internal dissidents, who attacked schools, clinics, railways, and harbours. [51], French involvement in Algeria stretched back a century. [30], Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa's linguistic diversity has been eroded. With Frelimos military successes in northeastern Mozambique in 197172 and, more important, with the transformation of the power structure in the region after the independence of the Portuguese territories, a new guerrilla strategy began to make headway. In that meeting, they agreed to the Atlantic Charter, which in part stipulated that they would, "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them. [60], Nationalist and Independence movements throughout Africa have been predominantly led by men, however, women also held important roles. This is followed by France with 28, Spain with 17, The Soviet Union with 16, Portugal with 7 and the USA with 5. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" (trinit coloniale) of state, missionary and private company interests. [17] One of the clauses, Clause Three, referred to the right to decide what form of government people wanted, and to the restoration of self-government. The banning of successive nationalist organizations and the detention and exile of their leadership led to fierce infighting and the emergence of two major liberation organizations, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), under Robert Mugabe, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU), under Joshua Nkomo. "[34] This agreement became the post-WWII stepping stone toward independence as nationalism grew throughout Africa. Arab Republic of Egypt (19531958) Liberia Democratic Republic of Congo Ghana Portugals initial response to the outbreak of revolt in Angola and Mozambique was all-out war, and by the mid 1960s there were some 70,000 Portuguese troops in each territory. Western Political Quarterly 24.1 (1971): 59-64. France retreated from Syria and Lebanon in 1946 after numerous catastrophic engagements with local peoples. While at the end of the colonial period imperial interests still controlled the economies of the region, by the end of the 20th century South Africa had become the dominant economic power. Mauro-Roman Kingdom (477-578) [62] In British-ruled Nigeria, colonial rulers had concentrated the power on male chiefs. After sporadic unrest in Nyasaland in 1959 a state of emergency was declared, while in all three territories nationalist leaders were arrested and their organizations banned. 18th20th Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, reunified as a New Kingdom of Egypt (15501069 BC) Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic. "Historical Legacies and African Development. Ghana 3. In Africa, the United Kingdom launched the process of decolonization in the early 1950s. But the reforms were too few and too late, and in April 1974 the sheer cost of the warstogether with rising dissatisfaction with the government in Portugalled to an army coup, the collapse of the Portuguese government, and Portuguese withdrawal from Africa. The French Union, included in the Constitution of 1946, nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. European Economic Review, Volume 46, pp. Voices from the Past However, Independence was explicitly rejected as a future possibility: After the war ended, France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the decolonisation movement. Part of the Umayyad Caliphate (698-750) After the war the imperial powers were under strong international pressure to decolonize. In 1976 the Transkei homeland was given independence by the South African government, and grants of independence followed over the next four years to Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda, though their independence was not internationally recognized. The NPs economic policies appeared to threaten British investments in South Africa at a time when Britain was particularly dependent on its colonial possessions for its sterling balances, while the Nationalists also renewed their demand for the incorporation into South Africa of Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland. When F.W. In 1979 renewed negotiations in London ultimately led to a peace settlement that established majority rule, and in 1980 Mugabe and ZANU won a landslide electoral victory. Nigeria, the Belgian Congo (renamed Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo), Kenya, and others soon followed. WebIndependence and Decolonization, Middle EastIn the decades immediately following the conclusion of World War II, European formal empires in the Middle East began to unravel. Assa, O. Chronological List of African Independence 1 Liberia 2 South Africa 3 Ethiopia 4 Morocco 5 Tunisia 6 Morocco 7 Morocco 8 Morocco 9 Cameroon 10 Madagascar More items WebMeanwhile, in places like Kenya and Vietnam, rebel groups fought long and bloody wars to gain their independence. The archipelago was first inhabited circa 1000 BC. Second Egyptian Satrapy, part of the Achaemenid Empire as the 31st Dynasty (343332 BC) Nigeria was granted independence from the British Empire on 1 October 1960. The idea that the colonies should be actively developed, in the European as much as in the African interest, was broadened during and after World War II. The year John F. Kennedy was elected to the White House, more than fifteen African nations became sovereign (Mazrui and Tidy, 362). The result was the Atlantic Charter. This abolished the remaining role of the British monarchy in Tanganyika. (Note: This article covered the history of the region from the prehistoric period to the end of the colonial period in the 20th century. It was widely assumed that Southern Rhodesia would provide managerial and administrative skills, Northern Rhodesia copper revenues, and Nyasaland labour for the new entity. [49] Paul Ramadier's (SFIO) cabinet repressed the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar in 1947. Kingdom of the Aurs (484703) [14] This led to a deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination, which was left largely unfulfilled. [9] The process of decolonisation began as direct consequence of World War II. or Resident? A stamp of Gold Coast overprinted in black, Ghana Independence shows country on African continent and queen Elizabeth II, 1957, on September 18, 2014, Zagreb, Croatia. [8] Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. Dissatisfaction with the wartime cabinet and fears of urban African militants lay behind the victory of the Reunited National Party (later the National Party [NP]), which ran on a platform of apartheid (apartness) in the white elections of 1948. A turning point occurred in 1988 when the South African Defense Forces inability to take Cuito-Cuanavale in Angola revealed South Africas lack of superior airpower and its inadequate weapons technology. Many more people in the British than in the French territories thus got some education, and appreciably more were able to attend universities. The small political associations in South West Africa after the war were profoundly influenced by their South African counterparts, but the first mass organization to protest against South Africas policies was formed only in 1958; in 1960 this organization became the South West Africa Peoples Organization (SWAPO). However, by 2015 much colonial legislation had been replaced by laws that were written locally.[33]. Meriweather argues that nongovernmental organizations influenced American policy towards Africa. Kenya (former British Kenya), see Mau Mau Uprising. The Viet Minh took their chance to occupy Hanoi and declare independence for Vietnam on September 2, 1945. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 20(1), 126. [30] Dependency theory suggests that most African economies continued to occupy a subordinate position in the world economy after independence with a reliance on primary commodities such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya. And we cant get independence if you dont want to join the party. South Africa did not sign, because of the 13th17th Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: divided in many states (16501550 BC) Margaret Ekpo was a chief, a politician, and a nationalist independence leader. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from as low as 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000. The lean years of the 1980s saw a widening gap between rich and poor, which was worsened by Bandas support of the Mozambican insurgency movement Renamo and the influx of vast numbers of refugees from the civil war in Mozambique. Yet the economic growth of the 1960s had expanded the Black working class and increased its confidence, and 197273 saw a wave of strikes and rapid growth of the trade union movement. If rather little of this education had penetrated to the Sudan by the 1940s, in some coastal areas Africans had become eager to invest some of their increasing wealth in education, which was seen as the key to European strength. Under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly. [63], I would tell the women, do you know that your daughter can be the matron of that hospital? When the Portuguese left Luanda in November 1975, Angola was in the throes of a civil war between its divided liberation movements. Exarchate of Africa, part of the Eastern Roman Empire (590-698) Zyrid Emirate, independent state (1048-1148) WebA. [10], During the world wars, African soldiers were conscripted into imperial militaries. By 1970 these goals largely had been achieved. "The imperialism of decolonization.". Frank Myers, "Harold Macmillan's" Winds of Change" Speech: A Case Study in the Rhetoric of Policy Change.". On February 2, 1990, de Klerk announced his intention to free Nelson Mandela, lift the ban on many opposition parties (including the ANC and the PAC), and negotiate with the Black majority for a new, nonracial constitution. Although in western Africa these were entrusted to either French or British administration, the mandated territories did not become the absolute possessions of the conquerors, and the role of the new rulers was declared to be to equip the mandated territories and their peoples for self-government. In the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of local African leaders educated in Western universities, where they became familiar with and fluent in ideas such as self-determination. 25th Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Nubian Dynasty, Part of the Kingdom of Kush, (747 BC656 BC) In 1955 this Congress Alliance drew up the Freedom Charter, a program of nonracial social democracy. WebAn independence day is an annual event commemorating the anniversary of a nation's independence or statehood, usually after ceasing to be a group or part of another nation or state, or more rarely after the end of a military occupation.Many countries commemorate their independence from a colonial empire.. Not all countries mark independence as a Mozambican territory was raided by Rhodesia and South Africa in 1979, and this was followed by further South African attacks and the infiltration of the Mozambican National Resistance (Resistncia Nacional Moambicana; Renamo), a brutal insurgency group established by Rhodesian intelligence services in 197677. Women are the power in this world. - The early kingdoms and empires of the western Sudan, The wider influence of the Sudanic kingdoms, The Islamic revolution in the western Sudan, The Guinea coastlands and the Europeans (180779), Initial difficulty of European administration, Decolonization and the regaining of independence, The formation of African independence movements. [48] Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city. (2006). The South African military assumed greater political importance. The MPLA, with growing backing from the Portuguese However, the French Community dissolved itself amid the Algerian War; almost all of the other African colonies were granted independence in 1960, following local referendums. She was arrested multiple times for instigating these rallies against British colonization. In 1929 Britain had enacted the first Colonial Development Act, providing that small amounts of British government money could be used for colonial economic development, thus breaking the deadlock by which the only colonial governments that could embark on development programs to increase the wealth of their subjects, and to improve their own revenues, were those that already commanded sufficient revenue to pay for the programs or to service the loans the programs required. Some colonies chose instead to remain part of France, under the status of overseas dpartements (territories). [36] Starting with the 1945 Pan-African Congress, the Gold Coast's (modern-day Ghana's) independence leader Kwame Nkrumah made his focus clear. Apartheid was extended to South West Africa, however, and in the mid 1960s its reserves were also consolidated into seven ethnically defined homelands under tribal authorities. There was no one process of

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